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| Thomas Cole, The Course of Empire: Destruction |
15-28
The danger from northern barbarians
The Cimbri already in 113 and 105 had
defeated Romans. Nevertheless Romans have boasted several victories against
them: “tam diu Germania vincitur” (Germania, 37), its is from long time
that Germania is won, writes with irony Tacito in 98 a. C.. No people has been
so hard and dangerous for us, he continues :"quippe regno Arsacis acrior est Germanorum libertas , in fact the
freedom of Germans is more strong than the kingdom, of Arsace (who founded the
eastern reign of Parti in 256 b. C.)
Tacito
remembers that the danger of Germani impends over Italy since more than 200
years: in 113 b. C. Cimbri defeated Romans and their consul Papirio Carbone at Norēia
(in Carinzia); after, Arminio leader of Cherusci, defeated Varo in 9 d. C. in
the forest of Teutoburgo; and when Romans won Germans with Marius against
Cimbri in Italia (101), Caesar
against Ariovisto in Gallia (58 b.
C.), and Germanico, who defeated Arminio in Weser in 16 a. C, these were not
easy nor overwhelming victories and there was loss of roman blood (nec impune).
Tacito makes sarcastic remarks about the
pompous triumphes celebrated by Domiziano:" Nam proximis temporibus triumphati magis quam victi sunt "
(Germania, 37), in fact in these
recent years we celebrated triumphes more than gain victories over this enemy.
In the years 83-85 Domiziano
led campaigns agains Chatti, on the right bank of river Rhine. This campagnais
had strengthened the border of Rhine with agri decumates subjected to tenth tax. The triumph
celebrated in 83 a. C. is mentioned also by Svetonio ( Vita di Domiziano,
6).
The danger
of northern people is already pointed out, indicated, by Sallustio who,
however, mistake Celti for Germani, may be with the intention to enlarge the
meaning of the victories of Caesar in Gallia that was conquered in the years
58-50.
In the last chapter (114) of Bellum Iugurthinum (composed about 40 b. C.) he writes:"per idem tempus[1] advorsum Gallos ab ducibus nostris Q. Caepione et Cn. Manlio
male pugnatum: quo metu Italia omnis contremuit. Illimque usque ad nostram
memoriam Romani sic habuere: alia omnia virtuti suae prona esse; cum Gallis pro
salute, non pro gloria certari ", in the same time our consuls Q.
Caepione et Cn. Manlio fought badly against Gallics: because
of this defeat all Italy trembled with fear. From that time till now the Romans
thought that other people were prone to their value: with Gallics they had to
fight for salvation, not for glory.
Germania by
Tacito in chapter 37 makes topical, brings up to date this last chapter (114)
of Bellum Iugurthinum
This is the phase of “remissive, renunciatory imperialism”
Germania is a book of 98 a. C.
In Annales, the last work of Tacito
written when Traiano had conquered Dacia (after 107) , we find the unrealistic,
fanciful imperialism. When emperor Traiano won the wars against Decebalo and
the Dacians (101-102 and 105-107) Tacito claims the full conquest of Germania
and reproaches to Tiberio with the recall of Germanico.
He could to subdue Germans," sed crebris epistulis Tiberius monebat rediret ad decretum triumphum:
satis iam eventuum, satis casuum, but
Tiberio with frequent letters urged the nephew to come back to receive the
decreed triumph: there had been successes and falls enough
Therefore: Posse
et Cheruscos ceterasque rebellium gentis, quoniam Romanae ultioni consultum
esset, internis discordiis relinqui " (Annales , II, 26), Cherusci and other rebels could be left to their
inner conflicts, since the defeat of Varo had been avenged.
We find a rational
theory of imperialism in some words of consul Petilio Ceriale who speaks
in 70 a. C. to the Trevĭri and Lingŏni people gallic and germanic in revolt. In
his speech we find the reasons and justifications of roman imperialism. The
empire wants to stop the advance of new Ariovisto or a second Arminio. The
Romans have imposed iure victoriae, with the right of victory, only what
is necessary to keep the peace. The victory and the peace demand some
conditions:
“Nam neque quies gentium sine
armis, neque arma sine stipendiis, neque stipendia sine tributis haberi queunt”(Hist.
IV, 74), in fact is impossible to have peace without arms, neither armament
without pays, salaries, neither salaries without taxes.
If Romans will be expelled,
there will be a global war and chaos, quod di prohibeant, God forbid! If
we want to repel Germani or Britanni we cannot lighten taxes
“Octingentorum annorum fortunā disciplināque compages haec coaluit:
quae convelli sine exitio convellentium non potest”, with the Fortune and
the discipline during eight hundred years became consolidated, strengthened,
this structure that now cannot be destroyed without the collapse of the
destroyers themselves.
These are the words of every imperialism.
One can add to the means and the reasons of the success of Romans, what
said Muzio Scevola to the Etrurian king Porsenna who whanted to restore the
king Tarquinio banished from Roma in 509 b. C.: “et facere et pati fortia
romanum est” (Tito Livio, Ab urbe condita, II, 9), to do and to
suffer strong deeds is roman thing. He had burnt his hand because had failed in
his object of killing of the king.
Tacito
undertands that the german people more
young and less corrupt than roman is a danger for the empire and feels that the
fates are pressing :"maneat,
quaeso, duretque gentibus, si non amor nostri, at certe odium sui, quando ,
urgentibus imperii fatis , nihil iam praestare fortuna maior potest quam
hostium discordiam" (Germania,
33), I hope that remains ad continues a long time in these people, if not love
of us, at least the hate among them, since, while the fates of empire are
pressing, the fortune nothing more can give us than conflicts among themselves.
And in Agricola, about Celts, Tacito writes “nec aliud adversus validissimas gentes pro
nobis utilius, quam quod in comune non consulunt” (12) nothing against very
strong people is more useful
for us than that they do not decide together. It means: divide et impera, divide and command, the motto of every
imperialism
Another
hope comes to Romans from weakening of barbarians when these rude men come in
contact with roman civilisation: the Britanni fell into the blandishments proposed
by Romans: frequens toga to
wear often the toga , uniform of roman citizenship, porticus,
porches, balinea, baths, conviviorum elegantia, smartness of
banquets, were delenimenta vitiorum, attraction to vices: “ idque
apud imperitos humanitas vocabatur, cum pars servitutis esset (Agr.
XXI), all that was called civilisation by those inexpert, while was part of
their slavery.
Il destino. The Fate
In Historiae (II, 82) Tacito writes: nihil arduum fatis, nothing is difficult for the fates. Gli occulta fati (II, 10) the hidden fate
sometime looks but quae fato manent
quamvis significata non vitantur (Hist.
I, 18), what is due to fate even if it is shown, is not possible to avoid. The
death of emperor Galba was in some way announcede by tonitrua et fulgura et caelestes minae, thunders and lightning and
other threats from the sky, all phenomena because of once upon a time the
electoral meetings were suspended. But it did not frighten Galba who went, in a
hurry, hastily, in castra to the
barracks were was killed. Or because he felt contempt for such phenomena as
casual (non terruit Galbam quo minus in castra pergeret, contemptorem talium ut
fortuitorum), or since is not possible avoid the fate even if it looks
Epicurean philosophy believe
in chance, Stoic philosophy in destiny and necessity. According to Epicuro and
Lucrezio the atoms constitute life and death and they go at random. All the
events proceed at random
Seneca in De beneficiis writes Juppiter may be
called also fatum "cum fatum nihil aliud sit quam series
implexa causarum" (IV, 7), because fatum, fate, destiny, is nothing
else but sequence linked, tied, of causes.
Tacito waves between these positions. In Annales III, 18, with regard to Claudio
mocked and nevertheless become emperor (41 a. C.), the historiographer writes
that the more he remembers the ancient and new facts, deeds, the more he sees
the mockery in all mortal matters “mihi
quanto plura recentium seu veterum revolvo,
tanto magis ludibria rerum mortalium in
cunctis negotiis observantur ”
Is the trick that rules the life. The man regally ridiculous became the
emperor of the world.
Vespasiano is seen as the man
supported by the gods. Alexandriae
(69 a. C.) multa miracula evenere, quis
caelestis favor et quaedam in Vespasianum inclinatio numinum ostenderetur (Hist, IV, 81), in Alexandria happened
many miracles trhrough which appeared, that showed the favour of the sky and a
certain predilection, fondness of gods for Vespasiano. He went as far as to
health a blind. Under Claudio (in 43 a. C.) Vespasiano had served in army in
Britannia where domitae gentes, capti reges et monstratus fatis (Agricola, XIII), people were tamed,
kings taken prisoners and (Vespasiano) was revealed by fates.
Under Nero he fell asleep
while the emperor was performing and Vespasiano was hardly saved maiore fato (Ann. XVI, 5) by a higher fate. Tacito does not give a sure reply if
prevails the Necessity (anavgkh) or the free will.
The fashions.
The historiographer points out
that luxus mensae" (Annales , III, 55), the pomp, magnificence,
of banquets began after the battle of Azio (31 b. C.) and finished with Nerone
(68 a. C.). Vespasiano was one of homines
novi, self made men: he came from Sabina and brought to Rome the frugality
of that land. So the fashion of luxury and waste ended. But, may be, there is a
cycle in all things:"Nisi forte
rebus cunctis inest quidam velut orbis, ut quem ad modum temporum vices ita
morum vertantur, unless in all things it is a kind of cycle, so that as the
seasons, in the same way turn the altern events, vicissitude of customs, uses.
Il latifondo The problem of latifundium
Tacito is
worried about the problem of latifundium
(large estate)
In a famous
passage of Annales (XII, 43), he writes "at hercule olim Italia
legionibus longiquas in provincias commeatus portabat, nec nunc infecunditate
laboratur, sed Africam potius et Aegyptum exercemus, navibusque et casibus vita
populi Romani permissa est ", and yet for Hercules, once upon a time,
Italy sent provisions to the legions in far provĭnces, neither today the earth
suffers from infertility, but we prefer to overwork Africa and Egypt and now
the life of Roman people is committed to the ships an the risks of the sea.
Tacito applies these words to the last part of empire of Claudio (41-54) but
already Augusto feared that italian country could remain uncultivated owing to
the idleness of plebs and so the emperor decided to suppress the distributions
of corn: "quod earum fiduciā cultură agrorum cessaret " [2], because trusting in those was
ending the cultivation of fields.
Plinio the Old (23-79 a. C.) in his monumental,
encyclpopedical work of 37 books, Naturalis
Historia, writes: latifundia perdidere Italiam, large
handed estate have ruined, spoilt Italy.
CONTINUA
Giovanna Tocco
RispondiElimina